World War I memory quiz – anti-war figures, World War I memory quiz – military commanders, World War I memory quiz – political leaders. Ophalen of Verzenden Duitsland. [40] Wilhelm delivered this speech in Bremerhaven on 27 July 1900, addressing German troops who were departing to suppress the Boxer Rebellion in China. Wilhelm thus developed a dysfunctional relationship with his parents, but especially with his English mother. The trial of Wilhelm II, Germany’s emperor between 1888 and 1918, was a moot one, conducted by historians and legal experts grappling with one of the great mysteries of 20th-century history. Kaiser Wilhelm II was the monarchical ruler of Germany, occupying the throne from June 1888 until his abdication at the end of World War I. As a boy and a student, his manner had been polite and agreeable; as an officer, he began to strut and speak brusquely in the tone he deemed appropriate for a Prussian officer. By 1916 the Empire had effectively become a military dictatorship under the control of Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff. When I told him that any decent man would describe these actions as gangsterisms, he appeared totally indifferent. Exercise your arms such that for a thousand years no Chinese will dare to look cross-eyed at a German. "[87], Also in 1940 came what would have been his mother's 100th birthday, on which he wrote ironically to a friend "Today the 100th birthday of my mother! As a direct consequence, Russia began a general mobilisation to attack Austria in defence of Serbia. However, Wilhelm II stopped any invasion of the Netherlands. This is the first part of 10 interesting facts about Kaiser Wilhelm II. They only added to the public perception of Wilhelm as an out-of-control, power-seeking megalomaniac who was desperate for confrontation and war. In his teenage years, Wilhelm’s relationship with his English mother deteriorated. The 63-year-old Wilhelm invited the boy and his mother, Princess Hermine Reuss of Greiz, to Doorn. "[110] Wilhelm advocated a "regular international all-worlds pogrom à la Russe" as "the best cure" and further believed that Jews were a "nuisance that humanity must get rid of some way or other. Wilhelm developed a penchant for archaeology while residing at the Corfu Achilleion, excavating at the site of the Temple of Artemis in Corfu, a passion he retained in his exile. Upon losing the support of the military and his subjects, Wilhelm abdicated his throne and fled to exile in the Netherlands. Wilhelm had seen the interview as an opportunity to promote his views and ideas on Anglo-German friendship, but due to his emotional outbursts during the course of the interview, he ended up further alienating not only the British, but also the French, Russians, and Japanese. Bismarck had again warned the Kaiser about the increasing influence of militarists, especially of the admirals who were pushing for the construction of a battle fleet. Wilhelm's biographer Lamar Cecil identified Wilhelm's "curious but well-developed anti-Semitism", noting that in 1888 a friend of Wilhelm "declared that the young Kaiser's dislike of his Hebrew subjects, one rooted in a perception that they possessed an overweening influence in Germany, was so strong that it could not be overcome". Extract from Wilhelm's public address for mobilisation, 6 August 1914. Kaiser Wilhelm II was the leader of Germany in the beginning of World War I, and he sought to increase Germany's power on the world stage in order to rival Britain. Bismarck wished to form a new bloc with the Centre Party, and invited Ludwig Windthorst, the party's parliamentary leader, to discuss a coalition; Wilhelm was furious to hear about Windthorst's visit. The thought that he, as heir to the throne, should not be able to ride was intolerable to her. The second SS Kaiser Wilhelm II, named for the German Emperor, was a 19,361-gross register ton passenger ship built at Stettin, Germany (now Szczecin, Poland). [69][full citation needed]. Bülow and Bethmann Hollweg, his loyal chancellors, looked after domestic affairs, while Wilhelm began to spread alarm in the chancellories of Europe with his increasingly eccentric views on foreign affairs. level 1. At the time of his birth, his granduncle, Frederick William IV, was king of Prussia, and his grandfather and namesake Wilhelm was acting as regent. "[63] In the original Schlieffen plan, Germany would attack the (supposed) weaker enemy first, meaning France. Likewise, his regime did much to alienate itself from the world's other Great Powers by initiating a massive naval build-up, challenging French control of Morocco, and building a railway through Baghdad that threatened Britain's dominion in the Persian Gulf. Wilhelm was born in Berlin, Germany at the Crown Prince's Palace on January 27, 1859. 11. Unknown to the Emperor, Austro-Hungarian ministers and generals had already convinced the 83-year-old Franz Joseph I of Austria to sign a declaration of war against Serbia. Wilhelm's hope of retaining at least one of his crowns was revealed as unrealistic when, in the hope of preserving the monarchy in the face of growing revolutionary unrest, Chancellor Prince Max of Baden announced Wilhelm's abdication of both titles on 9 November 1918. He tried with some success to conceal this; many photographs show him holding a pair of white gloves in his left hand to make the arm seem longer. The plan supposed that it would take a long time before Russia was ready for war. Perhaps the most apparent was that Wilhelm was an impatient man, subjective in his reactions and affected strongly by sentiment and impulse. As a grandchild of Queen Victoria, Wilhelm was a first cousin of the future King George V of the United Kingdom, as well as of Queens Marie of Romania, Maud of Norway, Victoria Eugenie of Spain, and the Empress Alexandra of Russia. 1 day ago. Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert von Preußen, in het Nederlands Frederik Willem Victor Albert van Pruisen (Berlijn, 27 januari 1859 — Doorn, 4 juni 1941) uit het Huis Hohenzollern was als Wilhelm II de laatste Duitse keizer (Duits: Kaiser) en koning van Pruisen. On 10 November, Wilhelm went to visit Baalbek before heading to Beirut to board his ship back home on 12 November. The mourners included August von Mackensen, fully dressed in his old imperial Life Hussars uniform, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, General Curt Haase and Reichskommissar for the Netherlands Arthur Seyss-Inquart, along with a few other military advisers. On 1 January 1920, it was stated in official circles in London that Great Britain would “welcome refusal by Holland to deliver the former kaiser for trial,” and it was hinted that this had been conveyed to the Dutch government through diplomatic channels. German monarchists visit the grave of German Kaiser Wilhelm II, who is buried in a mausoleum in Doorn, the Netherlands, Holland. In accordance with his role as the King of Prussia, Emperor Wilhelm II was a Lutheran member of the Evangelical State Church of Prussia's older Provinces. "[91] Continental Europe was now, Wilhelm wrote, "consolidating and closing itself off from British influences after the elimination of the British and the Jews!" In 1880 Wilhelm became engaged to Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, known as "Dona". Hermine's daughter, Princess Henriette, married the late Prince Joachim's son, Karl Franz Josef, in 1940, but divorced in 1946. Prince Max himself was forced to resign later the same day, when it became clear that only Friedrich Ebert, leader of the SPD, could effectively exert control. In 1889, Wilhelm's younger sister, Sophia, married the future King Constantine I of Greece. Wilhelm’s remarks during the interview were full of gaffes and undisciplined rants. In 1881 Wilhelm married his second cousin, Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, with whom he had seven children. In a letter to his daughter Victoria Louise, Duchess of Brunswick, he wrote triumphantly, "Thus is the pernicious Entente Cordiale of Uncle Edward VII brought to nought. Wilhelm’s grandfather, Wilhelm I (1861-88) had been, for the most part, a symbolic monarch. Inform us! Wilhelm's frustration over his fleet's poor showing at the Fleet Review at his grandmother Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee celebrations, combined with his inability to exert German influence in South Africa following the dispatch of the Kruger telegram, led to Wilhelm taking definitive steps toward the construction of a fleet to rival that of his British cousins. “Kaiser Wilhelm II was a bafflingly complex person. The Prussian Academy of Sciences was unable to avoid the Kaiser's pressure and lost some of its autonomy when it was forced to incorporate new programs in engineering, and award new fellowships in engineering sciences as a result of a gift from the Kaiser in 1900. The publication of these comments caused an outcry both in Britain and Germany. Over and over, the weeping prince was set on his horse and compelled to go through the paces. When the German war effort collapsed after a series of crushing defeats on the Western Front in 1918, he was forced to abdicate, thereby bringing an end to the Hohenzollern dynasty's three-hundred-year rule. "[93], Wilhelm died of a pulmonary embolism in Doorn, Netherlands, on 4 June 1941, at the age of 82, just weeks before the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union. Wilhelm’s determination to intrude into policy formation brought the young monarch into dispute with the ageing Bismarck. What has come over you that you are so completely given over to suspicions quite unworthy of a great nation? The Kartell split over this issue and nothing was passed. No notice is taken of it at home! [7], Wilhelm, from six years of age, was tutored and heavily influenced by the 39-year-old teacher Georg Ernst Hinzpeter. ", Donald E. Shepardson, "The 'Daily Telegraph' Affair,", Carl L. Boyd, "The Wasted Ten Years, 1888–1898: The Kaiser Finds an Admiral. A traumatic breech birth resulted in Erb's palsy, which left him with a withered left arm about six inches (15 centimetres) shorter than his right. The final split between monarch and statesman occurred soon after an attempt by Bismarck to implement a far-reaching anti-Socialist law in early 1890.[15]. They included strong criticisms of the English government and other European leaders, even of the English themselves: “You English are mad, mad, mad as March hares! [neutrality is disputed] Wilhelm wanted to preclude the emergence of another Iron Chancellor, whom he ultimately detested as being "a boorish old killjoy" who had not permitted any minister to see the Emperor except in his presence, keeping a stranglehold on effective political power. He also was present at the funeral of King Edward VII in 1910. Victoria, in turn, told one of her ministers that Wilhelm was a “hot-headed, conceited and wrong-headed young man”. As the debate continued, Wilhelm became more and more interested in social problems, especially the treatment of mine workers who went on strike in 1889. Wilhelm’s own parents had been liberal-minded progressives, who favoured a British-style system of government with the monarch advised by a cabinet of ministers. The monarchy's last and strongest support had been broken, and finally even Hindenburg, himself a lifelong monarchist, was obliged, with some embarrassment, to advise the Emperor to give up the crown. The Chinese have overturned the law of nations; they have mocked the sacredness of the envoy, the duties of hospitality in a way unheard of in world history. 23 aanbiedingen in januari - Bekijk alles met kaiser wilhelm! The hyper-masculine military culture of Prussia in this period did much to frame his political ideals and personal relationships. These caused the young prince some physical discomfort, though he was more troubled by the embarrassment they brought. Despite strengthening Germany's position as a great power by building a blue-water navy and promoting scientific innovation, his tactless public statements greatly antagonized the international community and his foreign policy was seen by many as one of the causes for the outbreak of World War I Wilhelm invented and spread fears of a yellow peril trying to interest other European rulers in the perils they faced by invading China; few other leaders paid attention. When Wilhelm was in his early twenties, Bismarck tried to separate him from his parents (who opposed Bismarck and his policies) with some success. URL: https://alphahistory.com/worldwar1/kaiser-wilhelm-ii/ The German Empire has, by its very character, the obligation to assist its citizens if they are being set upon in foreign lands. He fell off time after time but despite his tears, was set on its back again. It is up to you to emulate them. Wilhelm’s early years were spent under the ferocious discipline of a military tutor, who applied strict punishments for his minor errors but no praise or encouragement for his successes. During the ceremony, the four-year-old became restless. Show the old Prussian virtue. The Kaiser was notoriously racist and prone to inflammatory remarks and stereotyping. Born with a slight physical deformity, Wilhelm endured a difficult childhood. Endowed with a high intelligence and an excellent memory, he was capable of the most crashing stupidities. Furthermore, the young Emperor had come to the throne determined to rule as well as reign, unlike his grandfather. "[87] Wilhelm greatly admired the success which Hitler was able to achieve in the opening months of the Second World War, and personally sent a congratulatory telegram when the Netherlands surrendered in May 1940: "My Fuhrer, I congratulate you and hope that under your marvellous leadership the German monarchy will be restored completely." www.pinterest.com. Between 1888 and 1901 Wilhelm resented his uncle, himself a mere heir to the British throne, treating Wilhelm not as Emperor of Germany, but merely as another nephew. Early life. Though he played host to Hermann Göring at Doorn on at least one occasion, Wilhelm grew to distrust Hitler. Give the whole world an example of manliness and discipline. Despite this, the Kaiser accepted the suggestion. He received a strict military and academic education at the Kassel Gymnasium and the University of Bonn. A great task awaits you: you are to revenge the grievous injustice that has been done. He thus became alienated from his parents, suspecting them of putting Britain's interests first. Commander-in-chief of the German armies during WW1. Apr 22, 2016 - Kaiser Wilhelm II of Prussia and the German empire inspects his troops on the eve of war in 1914 However, he frequently undermined such progress by making threatening statements towards other countries and voicing xenophobic views without consulting his ministers. Who Was Kaiser Wilhelm? [31] Beginning in the 1890s, Wilhelm made visits to England for Cowes Week on the Isle of Wight and often competed against his uncle in the yacht races. The ship was completed in the spring of 1903. He ordered his military leaders to read Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan's book, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, and spent hours drawing sketches of the ships that he wanted built. [original research?] Gelopen. The last emperor of the German Empire. In particular, he was opposed to wage increases, improving working conditions, and regulating labour relations. This is more than could have been expected. Wilhelm II was the last German Emperor (Kaiser). Up to that point, he accepted that he would likely have to give up the imperial crown, but still hoped to retain the Prussian kingship. It also came less than a year after their son Joachim committed suicide. Wilhelm was born in Berlin in 1859, the first son of Frederick, heir to the Prussian throne, and Victoria, the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria of England. When World War I began, Kaiser Wilhelm II’s rule in Germany was nearing its end. Bismarck had sponsored landmark social security legislation, but by 1889–90, he had become disillusioned with the attitude of workers. Wilhelm's most contentious relationships were with his British relations. Wilhelm also idolised his grandfather, Wilhelm I, and he was instrumental in later attempts to foster a cult of the first German Emperor as "Wilhelm the Great". A nation is created by families, a religion, traditions: it is made up out of the hearts of mothers, the wisdom of fathers, the joy and the exuberance of children ... For a few months I was inclined to believe in National Socialism. [91] He argued that the English ruling classes were "Freemasons thoroughly infected by Juda". Historians have frequently stressed the role of Wilhelm's personality in shaping his reign. [13], Beginning in 1884, Bismarck began advocating that Kaiser Wilhelm send his grandson on diplomatic missions, a privilege denied to the Crown Prince. [citation needed] Despite his personal animosity toward Wilhelm, Hitler wanted to bring his body back to Berlin for a state funeral, as Wilhelm was a symbol of Germany and Germans during the previous World War. … There were two versions of the speech. On the night of 30 July, when handed a document stating that Russia would not cancel its mobilisation, Wilhelm wrote a lengthy commentary containing these observations: ... For I no longer have any doubt that England, Russia and France have agreed among themselves—knowing that our treaty obligations compel us to support Austria—to use the Austro-Serb conflict as a pretext for waging a war of annihilation against us ... Our dilemma over keeping faith with the old and honourable Emperor has been exploited to create a situation which gives England the excuse she has been seeking to annihilate us with a spurious appearance of justice on the pretext that she is helping France and maintaining the well-known Balance of Power in Europe, i.e., playing off all European States for her own benefit against us. Hitler was reportedly exasperated and bemused, and remarked to Linge, his valet, "What an idiot! Posted by 1 day ago. However, this was impossible under the imperial constitution. In 1894, when Kaiser Wilhelm II had been on the throne for only six years and Bismarck in angry retirement for four, when Adolf Hitler was not yet old enough to go to school, an obscene broadsheet costing 30 Pfennigs appeared on the streets of Berlin which, seen from the vantage point of the present day, poses the question of continuity in modern German history about as starkly as it is … While the letter of the imperial constitution vested executive power in the emperor, Wilhelm I had been content to leave day-to-day administration to Bismarck. Wilhelm II, German Emperor (1859-1941) acceded to the Prusso-German throne on 15 June 1888. It was a United Protestant denomination, bringing together Reformed and Lutheran believers. [46] Historians have linked the Eulenberg scandal to a fundamental shift in German policy that heightened its military aggressiveness and ultimately contributed to World War I.[45]. Kaiser Wilhelm, George V and Tsar Nicholas II: The cousins that went to war in WW1 The Kaiser, the Tsar and King George V - cousins at war in WW1 | Sky HISTORY TV Channel Skip to … In 1905, a poorly-timed state visit to Morocco heightened suspicions in France that the Kaiser had imperialist ambitions there. [4][5], In 1863, Wilhelm was taken to England to be present at the wedding of his Uncle Bertie (later King Edward VII), and Princess Alexandra of Denmark. The Sultan subsequently rejected a set of French-proposed governmental reforms and invited major world powers to a conference which would advise him on necessary reforms. In the early twentieth century, Wilhelm began to concentrate upon his real agenda: the creation of a German navy that would rival that of Britain and enable Germany to declare itself a world power. 1914 Oproep Wereldoorlog 1. Zakmes 12 MERCATOR WW1. A great moral victory for Vienna; but with it every pretext for war falls to the ground, and [the Ambassador] Giesl had better have stayed quietly at Belgrade. [79], In 1922, Wilhelm published the first volume of his memoirs[80]—a very slim volume that insisted he was not guilty of initiating the Great War, and defended his conduct throughout his reign, especially in matters of foreign policy. [9] Wilhelm possessed a quick intelligence, but this was often overshadowed by a cantankerous temper. It would have been unprecedented for Britain to target a head of state – especially a royal one who was the British king’s first cousin (US Library of … [75], Wilhelm first settled in Amerongen, where on 28 November he issued a belated statement of abdication from both the Prussian and imperial thrones, thus formally ending the Hohenzollerns' 500-year rule over Prussia. Upon hearing in July 1917 that his cousin George V had changed the name of the British royal house to Windsor,[65] Wilhelm remarked that he planned to see Shakespeare's play The Merry Wives of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Whether he was the right tutor for me, I dare not decide. Wilhelm was fortunate to be able to call on the services of the dynamic naval officer Alfred von Tirpitz, whom he appointed to the head of the Imperial Naval Office in 1897. On this document, I should never have given orders for mobilisation.[59]. Wilhelm II (Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert; 27 January 1859 – 4 June 1941), anglicised as William II, was the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, reigning from 15 June 1888 until his abdication on 9 November 1918. Accepting the reality that he had lost both of his crowns for good, he gave up his rights to "the throne of Prussia and to the German Imperial throne connected therewith." Several of his outspoken comments and misjudgments fuelled European tensions in the decade prior to World War I. Date published: August 4, 2017 Wilhelm's role in wartime was one of ever-decreasing power as he increasingly handled awards ceremonies and honorific duties. The existing Imperial admiralty was abolished, and its responsibilities divided between two organisations. He established a system of personal monarchy in which he, his courtiers and military entourage determined policy and he alone held responsibility for the appointment and dismissal of civilian statesmen. (editor, 1967) ", The Last German Emperor, Living in Exile in The Netherlands 1918–1941, Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Chlodwig, Prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, King Manuel II of Portugal and the Algarve, Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, Princess Alexandra Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, Evangelical State Church of Prussia's older Provinces, Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig, Knight of Saints Cyril and Methodius, with Collar, Cross of Honour of the Order of the Dannebrog, Grand Cross of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Research Materials: Max Planck Society Archive, "The Construction of the Baghdad Railway and its Impact on Anglo-Turkish Relations, 1902–1913", "Following The Tracks To War – Britain, Germany & The Berlin–Baghdad Railway", "Queen Victoria and the Crippled Kaiser - Ντοκιμαντερ", "The Emperor's visit to the East: As reflected in contemporary Arabic journalism", The Last Kaiser, Radio Netherlands Archives, November 1998, "How Recep Tayyip Erdogan seduces Turkish migrants in Europe", "Germany and the Armenian Genocide of 1915–17", Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Preußen, "Wilhelm II, German Emperor & King of Prussia (1859–1941)", "Wilhelm II. “Shortly before the show, the following flash signal was circulated: ‘His Majesty the Kaiser and Hindenburg on the scene of the operations.’ Wilhelm thought he ruled as emperor in a personal union with Prussia. At the time of his birth, he was also sixth in the line of succession to the British throne, after his maternal uncles and his mother. He builds legions, but he doesn't build a nation. Later, as he came into contact with the Crown Prince's political opponents, Wilhelm came to adopt more ambivalent feelings toward his father, perceiving the influence of Wilhelm's mother over a figure who should have been possessed of masculine independence and strength. British public opinion had been quite favourable towards the Kaiser in his first twelve years on the throne, but it turned sour in the late 1890s. His Kartell, the majority of the amalgamated Conservative Party and the National Liberal Party, favoured making the laws permanent, with one exception: the police power to expel Socialist agitators from their homes. Many historians consider Wilhelm the individual most responsible for the outbreak of war. "[106] Written in response to the political competition between the Christian sects to build bigger and grander churches and monuments which made the sects appear idolatrous and turned Muslims away from the Christian message. "[111], 19/20th-century German Emperor and King of Prussia, "Wilhelm II" and "Kaiser Wilhelm II" redirect here. One memorable quotation from the interview was, "You English are mad, mad, mad as March hares. [12], As a young man, Wilhelm fell in love with one of his maternal first cousins, Princess Elisabeth of Hesse-Darmstadt. [19] In 1891, the Reichstag passed the Workers Protection Acts, which improved working conditions, protected women and children and regulated labour relations. [citation needed], In foreign policy Bismarck had achieved a fragile balance of interests between Germany, France and Russia—peace was at hand and Bismarck tried to keep it that way despite growing popular sentiment against Britain (regarding colonies) and especially against Russia. It is all the more outrageous that this crime has been committed by a nation that takes pride in its ancient culture. On 15 June of that same year, his 29-year-old son succeeded him as German Emperor and King of Prussia. In a period of ten years, between 1882 and 1892, Augusta Victoria would bear Wilhelm seven children, six sons and a daughter. The following January, Wilhelm received a birthday greeting from a son of the late Prince Johann George Ludwig Ferdinand August Wilhelm of Schönaich-Carolath. staisil. This World War I website is created and maintained by Alpha History. One of the few times when Wilhelm succeeded in personal diplomacy was when in 1900 he supported the marriage of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria to Countess Sophie Chotek, against the wishes of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. "The man who in peace had believed himself omnipotent became in war a 'shadow Kaiser', out of sight, neglected, and relegated to the sidelines."[58]. 7 Answers. Farewell, comrades![41][42]. His remarks about “cross-eyed” Chinese after the Boxer Rebellion, for example, raised eyebrows around the world. This was necessary, he believed, so that the German people could enjoy their “place in the sun”. Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859-1941), Germany's last emperor, was born in Potsdam in 1859, the son of Frederick III. The Kaiser started his journey to the Ottoman Eyalets with Istanbul on 16 October 1898; then he went by yacht to Haifa on 25 October. After a heated argument at Bismarck's estate over Imperial authority, Wilhelm stormed out. In 1908, a London newspaper, the Daily Telegraph, published what it claimed was an interview with Wilhelm II. As the eldest grandchild of Queen Victoria, Wilhelm's first cousins included King George V of the United Kingdom and many princesses who, along with Wilhelm's sister Sophia, became European consorts. He implied, among other things, that the Germans cared nothing for the British; that the French and Russians had attempted to incite Germany to intervene in the Second Boer War; and that the German naval buildup was targeted against the Japanese, not Britain. Historians have suggested that this disability affected his emotional development. His eighteen-year-old uncle Prince Alfred, charged with keeping an eye on him, told him to be quiet, but Wilhelm drew his dirk and threatened Alfred. For example, President Theodore Roosevelt believed the Kaiser was in control of German foreign policy because Hermann Speck von Sternburg, the German ambassador in Washington and a personal friend of Roosevelt, presented to the president messages from Chancellor von Bülow as messages from the Kaiser. He also released his soldiers and officials in both Prussia and the empire from their oath of loyalty to him. He frequently fell into depressions and hysterics ... 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